Plastikmüll im Meer: Zur Entdeckung eines Umweltproblems

Author: Johanna Kramm, Carolin Völker
Year of Publication: 2017
Published: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (APuZ) 51-52: 17-22

Abstract:
Es ist erst wenige Jahre her, dass mehrere Medien von der Entstehung eines „achten Kontinents“ berichteten. Dieser bestehe aus allerlei Unrat und Müll, vor allem Plastikmüll, der sich durch die Meeresströmung im Nordpazifik gesammelt habe. Die Vorstellung eines neuen Kontinents beflügelte einige zunächst: Niederländische Architekten entwickelten Visionen, den Plastikmüll einzusammeln, um neuen Wohnraum auf einer Insel aus recyceltem Material zu gewinnen. Und der junge Erfinder Boyan Slat entwarf eine Art marine Plastikmüllauffanganlage, die er durch Crowdfunding finanzierte. Inzwischen ist bekannt, dass das Plastik im Nordpazifik keine tragende, kontinentartige Fläche bildet, sondern eher eine “Plastiksuppe”. Wegen der Strömungen sammelt sich darin vor allem sogenanntes Mikroplastik, das entweder durch den Zerfall von Plastikmüll entstanden ist oder bei dem es sich um verlorengegangenes Plastikgranulat handelt. Dieses aus dem Meer herauszuholen, wird als zu aufwendig und kostspielig angesehen. Zudem würden durch die Filtration auch kleine, für die Meeresökologie wichtige Lebewesen herausgefischt.

Keywords:
plastic litter, sea, microplastics

Citation:
Kramm, J.; Völker, C. (2017): Plastikmüll im Meer. Zur Entdeckung eines Umweltproblems. In: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (APuZ) 51-52: 17-22.

Link:
http://www.bpb.de/apuz/261373/plastikmuell-im-meer-zur-entdeckung-eines-umweltproblems?p=all

Superficial or Substantial: Why Care about Microplastics in the Anthropocene?

Author: Kramm, J.; Völker, C.; Wagner, M.
Year of Publication: 2018
Published: Environmntal Science and Technology 52 (6), 3336–3337

Abstract:
In his recent Viewpoint, G. Allen Burton asks why “fellow scientists continue to focus on superficial microplastics risks” as “low exposure concentrations dictate there could be no risk”. He criticizes that scientists overstate the risks of microplastics, misinform the public, and “adversely influence” policy making. While we understand Burton’s frustration with at times sensationalist media reports on microplastics, we also agree with Hale that Burton’s risk assessment is premature. However, the current discourse reveals a much more fundamental issue, namely, that the disciplines of environmentaltoxicology and chemistry have yet to find their role inthe Anthropocene. The recent microbead bans are illuminatingfor this challenge: societies have decided to take action on anenvironmental “threat” before a scientific consensus on itsrelevance has evolved. We can either bemoan this as beingmisinformed or critically reflect on why our disciplines had littlesay in it. We do the latter and respond 3-fold to Burton’s “Why care?” question.

Keywords:
microplastics, environmental toxicology and chemistry, science, society, scientific opinion

Citation:
Kramm, J.; Völker, C.; Wagner, M. (2018): Superficial or Substantial: Why Care about Microplastics in the Anthropocene? In: Environmental Science and Technology 52 (6), 3336–3337

Link:
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1021/acs.est.8b00790

Plastics of the future? The impact of biodegradable polymers on the environment and on society

Author: Haider, T.; Völker, C.; Kramm, J.; Landfester, K.; Wurm, F.R.
Year of Publication: 2018
Published: Angewandte Chemie International Edition

Abstract:
We are living in a plastic age. For most of us, life without polymers and plastics is unthinkable. However, in recent years the littering of plastics and the problems related to their persistence in the environment have become a major focus in both research and the news. Biodegradable polymers like poly(lactic acid) are seen as a suitable alternative to commodity plastics in order to minimize the impact of plastics on the environment after disposal. However, poly(lactic acid) is basically non‐degradable in seawater. Similarly, the degradation rate of other biodegradable polymers also crucially depends on the environments they end up in, such as soil or marine water, or when used in biomedical devices. In this review, we show that biodegradation tests carried out in artificial environments lack transferability to real conditions and, therefore, highlight the necessity of environmentally authentic and relevant field‐testing conditions. In addition, we focus on ecotoxicological implications of biodegradable polymers: Are there any possible adverse effects on biota caused by degradation products of the polymers? We also consider the social aspects and ask how biodegradable polymers influence consumer behavior and municipal waste management. Taken together, this study is intended as a contribution towards evaluating the potential of biodegradable polymers as alternative materials to commodity plastics.

Keywords:
Microplastics, Polyester, Ppolylactic Acid, Degradation, Polymers

Citation:
Haider, T.; Völker, C.; Kramm, J.; Landfester, K.; Wurm, F.R. (2018): Plastics of the future? The impact of biodegradable polymers on the environment and on society. In: Angewandte Chemie International Edition, https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201805766.

Link:
https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201805766

Impact of polyethylene microbeads on the floating freshwater plant duckweed

Author: Kalčíková Gabriela, Andreja Žgajnar Gotvajn, Aleš Kladnik, Anita Jemec Kokalj
Year of Publication: 2017
Published: Environmental pollution, 2017, vol. 230, str. 1108-1115

Abstract:
Microplastics (MP), small plastic particles below 5 mm, have become one of the central concerns of environmental risk assessment. Microplastics are continuously being released into the aquatic environment either directly through consumer products or indirectly through fragmentation of larger plastic materials. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of polyethylene microbeads from cosmetic products on duckweed (Lemna minor), a freshwater floating plant. The effects of microbeads from two exfoliating products on the specific leaf growth rate, the chlorophyll a and b content in the leaves, root number, root length and root cell viability were assessed. At the same time, water leachates from microbeads were also prepared to exclude the contribution of cosmetic ingredients on the measured impacts. Specific leaf growth rate and content of photosynthetic pigments in duckweed leaves were not affected by polyethylene microbeads, but these microbeads significantly affected the root growth by mechanical blocking. Sharp particles also reduced the viability of root cells, while the impact of microbeads with a smooth surface was neglected. It was concluded that microbeads from cosmetic products can also have negative impacts on floating plants in freshwater ecosystems.

Keywords: Cosmetics, Floating plants, Microbeads, Microplastics

Citation:
Kalčíková Gabriela, Andreja Žgajnar Gotvajn, Aleš Kladnik, Anita Jemec Kokalj (2017): Impact of polyethylene microbeads on the floating freshwater plant duckweed Lemna minor. Environmental pollution, vol. 230, str. 1108-1115

Kalčikova_2017_ MPs_duckweed

Wastewater treatment plant effluents as source of cosmetic polyethylene microbeads to freshwater

Author: Kalčíková Gabriela, Branko Alič, Tina Skalar, Mirco Bundschuh, Andreja Žgajnar Gotvajn
Year of Publication: 2017
Published: Chemosphere, Volume: 188, Page: 25-31

Abstract:
Microplastics in the environment are either a product of the fractionation of larger plastic items or a consequence of the release of microbeads, which are ingredients of cosmetics, through wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents. The aim of this study was to estimate the amount of microbeads that may be released by the latter pathways to surface waters using Ljubljana, Slovenia as a case study. For this purpose, microbeads contained in cosmetics were in a first step characterized for their physical properties and particle size distribution. Subsequently, daily emission of microbeads from consumers to the sewerage system, their fate in biological WWTPs and finally their release into surface waters were estimated for Ljubljana. Most of the particles found in cosmetic products were <100 μm. After application, microbeads are released into sewerage system at an average rate of 15.2 mg per person per day. Experiments using a lab-scale sequencing batch biological WWTP confirmed that on average 52% of microbeads are captured in activated sludge. Particle size analyses of the influent and effluent confirmed that smaller particles (up to 60–70 μm) are captured within activated sludge while bigger particles were detected in the effluent. Applying these data to the situation in Ljubljana indicates that about 112,500,000 particles may daily be released into the receiving river, resulting in a microbeads concentration of 21 particles/m3. Since polyethylene particles cannot be degraded and thus likely accumulate, the data raise concerns about potential effects in aquatic ecosystems in future.

Keywords:
Cosmetics, Freshwater, Microplastics, Polyethylene microbead

Citation:
Kalčíková Gabriela, Branko Alič, Tina Skalar, Mirco Bundschuh, Andreja Žgajnar Gotvajn (2017): Wastewater treatment plant effluents as source of cosmetic polyethylene microbeads to freshwater. Chemosphere, vol. 188, str. 25-31

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653517313541

Kalčikova_2017_microbeads

Occurrence and concentrations of microplastics in an urban river

Author: Claudia Campanale, Carmine Maddarelli, Giuseppe Bagnuolo, Vito Felice Uricchio
Year of Publication: 2018
Published: SETAC Europe 28th Annual Meeting

Abstract:
The term ‘microplastics’ was first used in 2004 to describe very small fragments of plastic (~ 50 m³) in the water column and in sediments. In 2009, Arthur et al. proposed that microplastics should include all fragments < 5 mm. Over the past decade, microplastic debris in both marine and freshwater systems has become an emerging environmental issue. Although 70 – 95 % of the marine litter, including microplastics, come from land environment, studies of microplastics in freshwater systems are limited respect to those focused on marine habitats. Rivers and inland waters may transport microplastics to marine habitats and may be a novel vector for the downstream transport of organic persistent pollutants suggesting an overlooked and potentially significant component of the global microplastic life cycle. Herein we report results from a monitoring study with the main objective of evaluate the occurrence and concentration of microplastics in an italian urban river and assess the hypotheses that microplastics amount could vary in response to temporal and seasonal trends. In order to monitor the trend of microplastic concentrations, two seasonal sampling campaigns have been planned (February and April 2017).

Occurrence and concentrations of microplastics in an urban river
Occurrence and concentrations of microplastics in an urban river

Superficial waters samples were collected with three surface plankton nets fixed in the middle of the river simultaneously for two different time slot (11:00-13:00 and 13:00-15:00) for a total of six replicates for each campaign. After sample extraction and purification, validation of visually based microplastics identification was achieved using pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Pyrolysis GCMS). The composition of microplastic was studied in term of size, shape, color and polymer type. Results from the six replicates are expressed as mean values (± DEV. ST.) of number of particles per cubic meter (p/m³). Microplastics were found in each net sample for a total amount of 22152 items collected, photographed, enumerated and categorized. Sample concentrations ranged from 3.52 to 13.43 p/m³ showing significantly higher abundances during February than April campaign (Mann?Whitney U Test = 18.00; p-value = 0.028). A total of five polymer have been characterized: PE, PP, PS, PVC and TDI-PUR. All samples contained at least three polymer types: PE, PP and PS. PE accounted for 77% of the total particles identified, followed by PS (12%), PP(10%), PVC (0.9%) and PU (0.4%).

Citation:
SETAC Europe 28th Annual Meeting, May 2018

Keywords:
Microplastics, occurrence, concentration, urban river, Italy

Campanale_SETAC2018

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325764010_Occurrence_and_concentration_of_microplastics_in_an_urban_river?_sg=SUfuufVNvTCfFs5xKPnMOVeIpDgZ36Fi5QS6qiJCnY-GsOwmgdn1NwQMsQ_p81eMAdWYzZKbtS_oT3a2GJ1spaE8CO6yjvwHbZAGgoC4.wLLKbFvq7qlv_vv2NiiyX8Sl3ACNFikFxmGyfBR_PqtIFGsShO5X-GQ7yzTxAPYl_pbFZSeiL-Vz52wubNweSA

European conference on plastics in freshwater environments

Author: Beate Bänsch-Baltruschat, Nicole Brennholt, Christian Kochleus, Georg Reifferscheid & Jan Koschorreck
Year of Publication: 2017
Published: UBA-DOKUMENTATION 05/2017

Abstract:
In 2016 the German Environment Agency (UBA) and the German Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG) organised a conference on plastics in freshwater environments on behalf of the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB). 220 attendants from 20 European and two non-European countries attended the conference. The objective was to exchange knowledge on plastics in European freshwater environments and to discuss its environmental and societal implications. In preparation of the conference an informal questionnaire was sent to water management agencies in Europe with questions on monitoring, risk awareness and management options. The results of this survey are presented in this issue paper.

Keywords:
Microplastics, occurrence, concentration, urban river, Italy

Citation:
Beate Bänsch-Baltruschat, Nicole Brennholt, Christian Kochleus, Georg Reifferscheid & Jan Koschorreck (2017): European conference on plastics in freshwater environments. UBA-DOKUMENTATION 05/2017.

https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/publikationen/conference-on-plastics-in-freshwater-environments

Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know

Author: Martin Wagner, Christian Scherer, Diana Alvarez-Muñoz, Nicole Brennholt, Xavier Bourrain, Sebastian Buchinger, Elke Fries, Cécile Grosbois, Jörg Klasmeier, Teresa Marti, Sara Rodriguez-Mozaz, Ralph Urbatzka, A. Dick Vethaak, Margrethe Winther-Nielsen & Georg Reifferscheid
Year of Publication: 2014
Published:

Abstract:
Background
While the use of plastic materials has generated huge societal benefits, the ‘plastic age’ comes with downsides: One issue of emerging concern is the accumulation of plastics in the aquatic environment. Here, so-called microplastics (MP), fragments smaller than 5 mm, are of special concern because they can be ingested throughout the food web more readily than larger particles. Focusing on freshwater MP, we briefly review the state of the science to identify gaps of knowledge and deduce research needs.

State of the science
Environmental scientists started investigating marine (micro)plastics in the early 2000s. Today, a wealth of studies demonstrates that MP have ubiquitously permeated the marine ecosystem, including the polar regions and the deep sea. MP ingestion has been documented for an increasing number of marine species. However, to date, only few studies investigate their biological effects.

The majority of marine plastics are considered to originate from land-based sources, including surface waters. Although they may be important transport pathways of MP, data from freshwater ecosystems is scarce. So far, only few studies provide evidence for the presence of MP in rivers and lakes. Data on MP uptake by freshwater invertebrates and fish is very limited.

Knowledge gaps
While the research on marine MP is more advanced, there are immense gaps of knowledge regarding freshwater MP. Data on their abundance is fragmentary for large and absent for small surface waters. Likewise, relevant sources and the environmental fate remain to be investigated. Data on the biological effects of MP in freshwater species is completely lacking. The accumulation of other freshwater contaminants on MP is of special interest because ingestion might increase the chemical exposure. Again, data is unavailable on this important issue.

Conclusions
MP represent freshwater contaminants of emerging concern. However, to assess the environmental risk associated with MP, comprehensive data on their abundance, fate, sources, and biological effects in freshwater ecosystems are needed. Establishing such data critically depends on a collaborative effort by environmental scientists from diverse disciplines (chemistry, hydrology, ecotoxicology, etc.) and, unsurprisingly, on the allocation of sufficient public funding.

Keywords:
Chemistry, Ecotoxicology, Environmental  quality, Litter, Microplastics, Monitoring, Plastics, Polymers, Review, Water framework directive

Citation:
Martin Wagner, Christian Scherer, Diana Alvarez-Muñoz, Nicole Brennholt, Xavier Bourrain, Sebastian Buchinger, Elke Fries, Cécile Grosbois, Jörg Klasmeier, Teresa Marti, Sara Rodriguez-Mozaz, Ralph Urbatzka, A. Dick Vethaak, Margrethe Winther-Nielsen & Georg Reifferscheid (2014): Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know. Environmental Sciences Europe 26:12.

http://www.enveurope.com/content/26/1/12/abstract

Freshwater microplastics: challenges for regulation and management. In: Martin Wagner & Scott Lambert (Eds.): Freshwater microplastics: Emerging environmental contaminants?

Author: Nicole Brennholt, Maren Heß & Georg Reifferscheid
Year of Publication: 2017
Published: Martin Wagner & Scott Lambert (Eds.): Freshwater microplastics: Emerging environmental contaminants? The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Springer-Verlag

Abstract:
The accumulation of plastic debris in aquatic environments is one of the major but least studied human pressures on aquatic ecosystems. Besides the general waste burden in waterbodies, (micro)plastic debris gives rise to ecological and social problems. Related to marine ecosystems, these problems are already in the center of interest of science, policy, and public. The United Nations Environment Programme, for instance, drafted a joint report on “marine plastic debris and microplastics,” and the European Community included the issue into the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive, descriptor 10 “marine litter.”

However, (micro)plastic litter in freshwater systems is not yet explicitly addressed in the respective regulations, although the issue is relevant for many international and national policy instruments and initiatives. Many conventions, agreements, regulations, strategies, action plans, programs, and guidelines refer to “all wastes” in general. This should also concern (micro)plastic waste.

This chapter provides an overview of the regulatory instruments developed at different levels to address freshwater (micro)plastic litter. Beyond that, specific management options and measures that are either compulsory or voluntary are presented. Nevertheless, only few options have been realized so far. Reasons are numerous, first and foremost the lack of consensus on the definition of microplastics.

The complexity of these particulate stressors with very heterogeneous physicochemical characteristics poses new challenges for regulation and management. We highlight the most important questions from the perspective of freshwater monitoring. Furthermore, we discuss a possible adaption of existing environmental policy instruments and potential management options for single categories of (micro)plastics.

Keywords:
Environmental plastics, Microplastics, National–international policy instruments, Science–policy interface

Citation:
Nicole Brennholt, Maren Heß & Georg Reifferscheid (2017): Freshwater microplastics: challenges for regulation and management. In: Martin Wagner & Scott Lambert (Eds.): Freshwater microplastics: Emerging environmental contaminants? The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Springer-Verlag.

https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783319616148

Feeding strategy and development drive the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater invertebrates

Author: Christian Scherer, Nicole Brennholt, Georg Reifferscheid & Martin Wagner
Year of Publication: 2017
Published: Scientific Reports Volume 7

Abstract:
Microscopic plastic items (microplastics) are ubiquitously present in aquatic ecosystems. With decreasing size their availability and potential to accumulate throughout food webs increase. However, little is known on the uptake of microplastics by freshwater invertebrates. To address this, we exposed species with different feeding strategies to 1, 10 and 90 µm fluorescent polystyrene spheres (3–3 000 particles mL−1). Additionally, we investigated how developmental stages and a co-exposure to natural particles (e.g., food) modulate microplastic ingestion. All species ingested microplastics in a concentration-dependent manner with Daphnia magna consuming up to 6 180 particles h−1, followed by Chironomus riparius (226 particles h−1), Physella acuta (118 particles h−1), Gammarus pulex (10 particles h−1) and Lumbriculus variegatus (8 particles h−1). D. magna did not ingest 90 µm microplastics whereas the other species preferred larger microplastics over 1 µm in size. In C. riparius and D. magna, size preference depended on the life stage with larger specimens ingesting more and larger microplastics. The presence of natural particles generally reduced the microplastics uptake. Our results demonstrate that freshwater invertebrates have the capacity to ingest microplastics. However, the quantity of uptake depends on their feeding type and morphology as well as on the availability of microplastics.

Keywords:
Microplastics, uptake, freshwater invertebrates, polystyrene spheres

Citation:
Christian Scherer, Nicole Brennholt, Georg Reifferscheid & Martin Wagner (2017): Feeding strategy and development drive the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater invertebrates. Scientific Reports Volume 7.

http://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-17191-7